Following are some Pedagogical Theories and Models of Learning that can assist with providing efficient online instruction.
Learning theories can be classified into three main categories: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.
Behaviorism — views learning as a change in learner's behavior or response based on environmental factors. Learning involves the formation of association between stimuli and responses.
B. F. Skinner- Operant Conditioning Theory: voluntary behavior can be altered by changes in the antecedents of the behavior, the consequences, or both. Skinner's theories have been used in education by applying reinforcement and punishment to change behaviors.
Cognitivism— sees people as active learners who initiate experiences, seek out information to solve problems, and reorganize information to achieve new knowledge.
Jerome Bruner - The Process of Education: Towards a Theory of Instruction- Learning occurs in three stages: enactive (interaction with objects), iconic (development of perceptions and visual memory), and symbolic (use of symbol systems such as language, words, and numbers).
Constructivism
The constructivist theory of learning states that learning is a dynamic process in which learners construct new concepts and ideas based on their past knowledge in the process of solving a particular set of problems posed by the instructor. The design of asynchronous online learning environments and the associative thinking patterns of the inquiring learner align well with the principles of the Constructivist Learning Paradigm.
Constructivism is a learner-centric educational paradigm, in which content is constructed by learners in a team-based collaborative learning , constructivist learning environment rather by the instructor. In the active learning educational paradigm of constructivism, the instructor becomes a catalyst, a coach, and a program manager. Learner inquiry and discovery, learner autonomy, and self-motivation of the learner are critical elements to the success of the learning process.
In a constructivist learning environment students build information in a team-based manner that emphasizes learner knowledge sharing and collaboration . Students acquire knowledge, share knowledge, and structure the knowledge among their teammates, with the instructor acting as a guide, co-collaborator, and mediator. A few constructivist models of teaching and learning follow.
Discovery learning or active learning theory (Jerome Bruner) states that learners are more likely to remember concepts if they discover them on their own, apply them to their own knowledge base and context, and structure them to fit into their own background and life experience.
Social development theory (Lev Vygotsky) defines human cognition in relation to the social interaction of the individual within his or her culture.
Zone of Proximal Development is an area where learning occurs for the individual within a social context:
1. Lower end: determined by the individual's ability to think and solve problems on an individual basis in order to complete tasks.
2. Higher end: determined by the learning environment in which the individual is able to collaborate with others more expert in the culture in order to solve problems and complete tasks.
Situated learning theory (Jean Lave) focuses on the learning experience as a shared, social, almost unintentional learning event:
Classroom learning by its very nature is out of context and irrelevant
Knowledge presented in the context of work settings and applications is most relevant and effective
Learning is a highly social, interactive activity that involves collaboration and mentoring
Developmental learning theory or genetic epistemology (Jean Piaget) describes the attaining of knowledge through the dual developmental learning processes of assimilation and accommodation to the environmental interactions.
Collaborative learning theory based on Lev Vygotsky's social development theory, postulates that social development and interaction have a fundamental role in the development of the learner's cognitive abilities and supports positive changes and better learning results. Stronger and weaker members are paired to encourage cognitive coaching and apprenticeship learning.
Cognitive coaching theory is a type of multiple mentoring in which learners become more and more aware of their own mental processing activities through guiding each other and sharing insights, information and problem solving approaches. The instructor seeks to foster the further sharing of information between the learners.
Cognitive apprenticeship theory (Allan Collins, John S. Brown, and S. E. Newman) is a model of hands-on instruction based on four elements:
1. Content: refers to problem-solving strategies, planning and revision management strategies, and learning strategies to reconfigure the content 2. Method: refers to a scaffolded learning approach, where the instructor initially supports the learners only to help them gain independence to carry learning and problem-solving tasks later 3. Sequence: refers to providing simple, straightforward, and familiar information first and then providing more complex tasks with divergent problem solving scenarios 4. Sociology: refers to utilizing collaborative learning techniques allowing students to work and learn in teams, as they will do when they leave the classroom.\
Scaffolded learning theory Scaffolding, based on Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development theory (1978), describes the use of temporary supports, "scaffolds", which guide and support learners during the learning process, with the goal to assist them to efficiently complete more complex tasks independently.
Knowledge building theory (Marlene Scardamalia and Carl Bereiter) is defined as the production and continual improvement of ideas of value to a community, through means that increase the likelihood that what the community accomplishes will be greater than the sum of individual contributions and part of broader cultural efforts. Knowledge building results in the creation or modification of public knowledge-knowledge that lives "in the world" and is available to be worked on and used by other people.
The idea of collective cognitive responsibility refers to the condition in which responsibility for the success of a group effort is distributed across all members rather than being concentrated in the leader.
Writing as a Mode of Learning
Emig (1977) defines learning as the “re-organization or confirmation of a cognitive scheme in light of an experience” and states that “writing as process-and-product possesses a cluster of attributes that correspond uniquely to certain powerful learning strategies”. The writing process involves both hemispheres of the brain and supports re-enforcement and feedback, attributes of successful learning.
Writing as a Mode of Learning
Blended Learning Blended learning is the "organic integration of thoughtfully selected and complementary face-to-face and online approaches and technologies.” (Garrison and Vaughan, 2008) The blended learning model provides a dynamic learning environment where students are encouraged to engage and reflect on their own learning. "The objective is to create dynamic and vital communities of inquiry where students take responsibility to construct meaning and confirm understanding through active participation in the inquiry process." (Garrison and Vaughan, 2008)
Problem-based Learning Problem-based learning is a model of instruction that supports students acquire knowledge and skills by solving real world problems.
Inquiry-based Learning Inquiry-based learning is a model of instruction where students ask questions, create hypotheses, investigate, construct new knowledge, discuss and reflect on discoveries, and generate new questions under the guidance of the teacher.
Experiential Learning Experiential learning is a model of instruction through which students develop knowledge, skills, and values from direct experiences outside the traditional classroom setting. In an experiential learning environment, students learn from mistakes and natural consequences. Students are involved intellectually and emotionally, have the opportunities to make decisions, take initiative, and are accountable for the results of their work.
Merlot Pedagogy Portal:Includes categories for "learners and learning"; course instructional design"; "teaching strategies"; "teaching challenges"; and "assessment".
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